Mucus / Lendir

In vertebrates, mucus (adjectival form: "mucous") is a slippery secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is a viscous colloid containing antiseptic enzymes (such as lysozyme), proteins such as lactoferrin, glycoproteins known as mucins that are produced by goblet cells in the mucous membranes and submucosal glands, immunoglobulins, and inorganic salts. This mucus serves to protect epithelial cells in the respiratory, gastrointestinal, urogenital, visual, and auditory systems in mammals; the epidermis in amphibians; and the gills in fish. A major function of this mucus is to protect against infectious agents such as fungi, bacteria and viruses. The average human body produces about a litre of mucus per day.

Snails, slugs, bony fish, hagfish and some other invertebrates also produce external mucus. In addition to serving a protective function against infectious agents, such mucus provides protection against toxins produced by predators, can facilitate movement and may play a role in communication.

Respiratory system

In the respiratory system mucus aids in the protection of the lungs by trapping foreign particles that enter it, particularly through the nose, during normal breathing. "Phlegm" is a specialized term for mucus that is restricted to the respiratory tract, while the term "mucus" more globally describes secretions of the nasal passages as well.

Nasal mucus is produced by the nasal mucosa, and mucal tissues lining the airways (trachea, bronchus, bronchioles) is produced by specialized airway epithelial cells (goblet cells) and submucosal glands. Small particles such as dust, particulate pollutants, and allergens as well as infectious agents such as bacteria are caught in the viscous nasal or airway mucus and prevented from entering the system. This event along with the continual movement of the respiratory mucus layer toward the oropharynx, helps prevent foreign objects from entering the lungs during breathing. Additionally, mucus aids in moisturizing the inhaled air and prevents tissues such as the nasal and airway epithelia from drying out. Nasal and airway mucus is produced constitutively, with most of it swallowed unconsciously, even when it is dried.

Increased mucus production in the respiratory tract is a symptom of many common illnesses, such as the common cold and influenza. Similarly, hypersecretion of mucus can occur in inflammatory respiratory diseases such as respiratory allergies, asthma, and chronic bronchitis. The presence of mucus in the nose and throat is normal, but increased quantities can impede comfortable breathing and must be cleared by blowing the nose or expectorating phlegm from the throat. Tears are also a component of nasal mucus.

Diseases involving mucus

Generally nasal mucus is clear and thin, serving to filter air during inhalation. During times of infection, mucus can change colour to yellow or green either as a result of trapped bacteria, or due to the body's reaction to viral infection.

In the case of bacterial infection, the bacterium becomes trapped in already clogged sinuses, breeding in the moist, nutrient-rich environment. Antibiotics may be used to treat the secondary infection in these cases, but will generally not help with the original cause.

In the case of a viral infection such as cold or flu, the first stage and also the last stage of the infection causes the production of a clear, thin mucus in the nose or back of the throat. As the body begins to react to the virus (generally one to three days), mucus thickens and may turn yellow or green. In viral infections, antibiotics will not be useful, and are a major avenue for misuse. Treatment is generally symptom-based; often it is sufficient to allow the immune system to fight off the virus over time.

Mucus as a medical symptom

Increased mucus production in the upper respiratory tract is a symptom of many common ailments, such as the common cold. Nasal mucus may be removed by blowing the nose, picking the nose, or by using traditional methods of nasal irrigation. Excess nasal mucus, as with a cold or allergies may be treated cautiously with decongestant medications. Excess mucus production in the bronchi and bronchioles, as may occur in asthma, bronchitis or influenza, may be treated with anti-inflammatory medications as a means of reducing the airway inflammation which triggers mucus over-production. Thickening of mucus as a "rebound" effect following overuse of decongestants may produce nasal or sinus drainage problems and circumstances that promote infection. Mucus with any color other than clear or white is generally an indicator of an infection of the nasal mucosa, the paranasal sinus or, if produced via a productive cough, of a lower respiratory tract infection.

Cold weather and mucus

During cold weather, the cilia which normally sweep mucus away from the nostrils and towards the back of the throat (see respiratory epithelium) become sluggish or completely cease functioning. This results in mucus running down the nose and dripping (a runny nose). Mucus also thickens in cold weather; when an individual comes in from the cold, the mucus thaws and begins to run before the cilia begin to work again.

Digestive system

In the digestive system, mucus is used as a lubricant for materials which must pass over membranes, e.g., food passing down the esophagus. A layer of mucus along the inner walls of the stomach is vital to protect the cell linings of that organ from the highly acidic environment within it. The same protective layer of mucus is what comes out when you sneeze. Mucus does not digest in the intestinal tract, so mucus commonly appears in fecal matter whether its origin is from the intestines, or swallowed.

Reproductive system

In the female reproductive system, cervical mucus prevents infection. The consistency of cervical mucus varies depending on the stage of a woman's menstrual cycle. At ovulation cervical mucus is clear, runny, and conducive to sperm; post-ovulation, mucus becomes thicker and is more likely to block sperm.

In the male reproductive system, the seminal vesicles contribute up to 60% of the total volume of the semen and contain mucus, amino acids, and fructose as the main energy source for the sperm.

BERSIN JUGA SEHAT

Sebagian orang mungkin menganggap bersin adalah hal sepele. Padahal, bersin merupakan suatu mekanisme pertahanan tubuh untuk mencegah masuknya zat asing ke dalam tubuh. Karena itu jangan ditahan jika anda terasa ingin bersin.

Selain menyebabkan kuman dan benda asing tertahan dalam tubuh, menahan bersin juga menyebabkan beberapa hal lainnya. Misalnya pecahnya gendang telinga, kehilangan pendengaran, Pembengkakan wajah sementara dan keretakan tulang rawan hidung. Sebab, saluran hidung dan mulut yang menjadi sarana keluaran bersin berhubungan juga dengan telinga.

Untuk diketahui, bersin adalah respon tubuh yang dilakukan oleh membran hidung ketika mendeteksi adanya bakteri dan kelebihan cairan yang masuk ke dalam hidung, sehingga secara otomatis tubuh akan menolak bakteri tersebut. Bersin juga dapat timbul akibat adanya peradangan (rhinosinusitis), benda asing, infeksi virus, atau reaksi alergi. Reaksi alergi tersebut muncul karena paparan terhadap bahan alergen.

Selain karena alergi, gejala pada hidung tersebut disebabkan bahan-bahan nonalergi yang ditimbulkan faktor lingkungan. Di antaranya, perubahan udara, temperatur, suhu, kelembapan, tekanan udara, atau bahan-bahan kimia dari obat-obat atau kosmetik tertentu. Mungkin juga akibat polusi udara karena asap kendaraan dan lingkungan industri. Kepantasan udara yang dilepaskan ketika bersin bisa mencapai 160 km/jam.

Bersin sebetulnya berguna menjaga agar hidung tetap bersih (cleansing effect). Udara yang mengembus kuat dengan tekanan tinggi dari paru-paru mendorong keluar melalui hidung dan mulut. Refleks bersin itu bisa terjadi berulang-ulang, sehingga diharapkan pembersihan bisa maksimal.

Pasteurization / Pasteurisasi

Pasteurization is a process which slows microbial growth in food. The process was named after its creator, French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur. The first pasteurization test was completed by Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard on April 20, 1864. The process was originally conceived as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring.
Pasteurization is not intended to destroy all pathogenic micro-organisms in the food or liquid. Instead, pasteurization aims to reduce the number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to cause disease (assuming pasteurization product is stored as indicated and consumed before its expiration date). Commercial-scale sterilisation of food is not common because it adversely affects the taste and quality of the product. Certain food products are processed to achieve the state of commercial sterility.

Products that can be pasteurized

• Almonds
• Apple cider
• Beer
• Canned food
• Cheese
• Cornbread
• Crabs
• Cream
• Eggs
• Honey (not necessary unless it is diluted)
• Juice
• Maple Syrup
• Milk
• Palm wine
• Ready Meal
• Soy sauce
• Sports drinks
• Tobacco
• Vinegar
• Water
• Wine

Pasteurisasi adalah sebuah proses pemanasan makanan dengan tujuan membunuh organisme merugikan seperti bakteri, virus, protozoa, kapang, dan khamir. Proses ini diberi nama atas penemunya Louis Pasteur seorang ilmuwan Perancis. Tes pasteurisasi pertama diselesaikan oleh Pasteur dan Claude Bernard pada 20 April 1862.

Tidak seperti sterilisasi, pasteurisasi tidak dimaksudkan untuk membunuh seluruh mikroorganisme di makanan. Bandingkan dengan appertisasi yang diciptakan oleh Nicolas Appert. Pasteurisasi bertjujuan untuk mencapai "pengurangan log" dalam jumlah organisme, mengurangi jumlah mereka sehingga tidak lagi bisa menyebabkan penyakit (dengan syarat produk yang telah dipasteurisasi didinginkan dan digunakan sebelum tanggal kadaluwarsa). Sterilisasi skala komersial makanan masih belum umum, karena dia mempengaruhi rasa dan kualitas dari produk.

Produk yang bisa dipasteurisasi

• susu
• anggur
• bir
• jus buah
• cider (sari buah apel)
• madu
• telur
• minuman olah raga
• makanan kaleng

Woolsorter’s disease or Anthrax

Anthrax, as it is more commonly called, is caused by the Gram-positive, spore-forming bacteria Bacillus anthracis. Woolsorter’s disease was also once known as ragpicker’s disease; its most common form in humans is cutaneous infection via the injured skin or mucous membranes of agricultural or industrial workers associated with infected animals or animal products. In 1877, the bacillus was the first bacterium shown to be the cause of a disease—one of the origins of the famous (Robert) Koch’s postulates. Along with mad cow disease, toxoplasmosis and the black plague ,anthrax is one of many animal blights with a direct impact on human health. The disease is surprisingly common and is endemic in the United States, EROPA, ASIA, AFRIKA, KARIBIA

Infection occurs through the skin or by inhalation or ingestion of bacterial spores. Intestinal and pulmonary anthrax are the most deadly. The latter usually results in death 1–2 days after the onset of acute symptoms. Treatment with antibiotics such as penicillin is generally effective after initial exposure and can protect against growing bacilli, but it will not destroy the spores themselves.

The bacteria can propagate wildly and stimulate effusions of blood and fluids in various organs and body cavities (>109 bacteria/mL of blood is commonplace). This is followed by prostration of the victim and organ failure. One of the reasons anthrax is such a deadly pathogen may be because its evolution has made it dependent on the death of the host for propagation. Once death ensues in nature, the animal’s carcass rots in the field, exposing the bacteria crowded in the bloodstream to the open air. This stimulates spore formation, which is the main transmissible source of the disease. Spores can survive for decades in contaminated soil from which they can ultimately be inhaled or ingested by herbivores, which starts the cycle over again. Because anthrax requires the death of its host to effect transmission, few evolutionary stops exist compared with disease organisms that depend on the host staying alive—at least long enough for transmission.

Vaccine controversy

Normally, anthrax vaccination is only recommended for workers in danger of exposure—especially farmworkers and veterinarians in rural practice. But anthrax has also been a staple of the biological warfare arsenal for nearly 60 years; thus, it is increasingly a military concern. Ever since the Gulf War and the decision by the U.S. military to conduct mandatory anthrax vaccinations of its personnel, there has been public controversy over the safety and efficacy of the vaccine. A recent U.S. Supreme Court decision upheld the right of the military to enforce its anthrax vaccination policy. Studies conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) found no link between anthrax vaccination and adverse reactions, including the purported “Gulf War Syndrome”.As part of a congressionally mandated CDC Anthrax Vaccine Research Program, new studies on rhesus monkeys are planned to determine the vaccine’s effectiveness, especially against aerosol delivery, the most likely terrorist scenario.

The only approved anthrax vaccine in the United States is produced from a cell-free filtrate of bacterial cultures. Vaccination generally involves a 6-dose schedule at 0, 2, and 4 weeks with boosters at 6, 12, and 18 months. Problems with vaccine supply have also recently been an issue—BioPort Corp., the Lansing, MI, company that makes the vaccine, was unable to produce sufficient doses to meet demand in 2000.For the CDC’s view of the vaccine issue, visit the CDC Web site, especially >www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr4915a1.htm.

INHALATION ANTRHAX


CUTANEOUS ANTHRAX

ANTIGENIC DRIFT AND ANTEGENIC SHIFT

Antigenic drift: A mechanism for variation by viruses that involves the accumulation of mutations within the antibody-binding sites so that the resulting viruses cannot be inhibited well by antibodies against previous strains making it easier for them to spread throughout a partially immune population.
Antigenic drift occurs in both influenza A and influenza B viruses.

Antigenic drift: Sebuah mekanisme untuk variasi oleh virus yang melibatkan akumulasi mutasi dalam situs mengikat antibodi sehingga virus yang dihasilkan tidak dapat dihambat dengan baik oleh antibodi terhadap strain sebelumnya sehingga lebih mudah bagi mereka untuk tersebar di seluruh kekebalan sebagian penduduk. Antigenic drift terjadi di kedua influenza A dan B virus influenza

Antigenic shift: A sudden shift in the antigenicity of a virus resulting from the recombination of the genomes of two viral strains. Antigenic shift is seen only with influenza A viruses. It results usually from the replacement of the hemagglutinin (the viral attachment protein that also mediates the entry of the virus into the cell) with a novel subtype that has not been present in human influenzaviruses for a long time. The source of these new genes is the large reservoir of influenzaviruses in waterfowl. The consequences of the introduction of a new hemagglutinin into human viruses is usually a pandemic, or a worldwide epidemic.

Antigenic shift: Perubahan mendadak dalam antigenicity dari virus yang dihasilkan dari rekombinasi genom dari dua galur virus. Pergeseran antigenik terlihat hanya dengan virus influenza A. Itu biasanya hasil dari penggantian hemaglutinin (lampiran protein virus yang juga menengahi masuknya virus ke dalam sel) dengan subtipe novel yang tidak pernah hadir di influenzaviruses manusia untuk waktu yang lama. Sumber gen ini baru merupakan reservoir yang besar influenzaviruses di unggas air. Konsekuensi dari penerapan suatu hemaglutinin baru ke dalam virus manusia biasanya merupakan pandemi, atau epidemi di seluruh dunia.

iz the world of doctor: ATHLETE'S FOOT / TINEA PEDIS

iz the world of doctor: ATHLETE'S FOOT / TINEA PEDIS

ATHLETE'S FOOT / TINEA PEDIS

Athlete's foot ( of the foot and tinea pedis) is a fungal infection of the skin that causes scaling, flaking, and itch of affected areas. It is caused by fungi in the genus Trichophyton and is typically transmitted in moist areas where people walk barefoot, such as showers or bathhouses. Although the condition typically affects the feet, it can spread to other areas of the body, including the groin. Athlete's foot can be prevented by good hygiene, and is treated by a number of pharmaceutical and other treatments.

Symptoms
Athlete's foot causes scaling, flaking, and itching of the affected skin. Blisters and cracked skin may also occur, leading to exposed raw tissue, pain, swelling, and inflammation. Secondary bacterial infection can accompany the fungal infection, sometimes requiring a course of oral antibiotics.
The infection can be spread to other areas of the body, such as the groin, and usually is called by a different name once it spreads, such as tinea corporis on the body or limbs and tinea cruris (jock itch or dhobi itch) for an infection of the groin. Tinea pedis most often manifests between the toes, with the space between the fourth and fifth digits most commonly afflicted.
Some individuals may experience an allergic response to the fungus called an "id reaction" in which blisters or vesicles can appear in areas such as the hands, chest and arms. Treatment of the fungus usually results in resolution of the id reaction.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis & treatment can be performed by a general practitioner or pharmacist, and by specialists such as a dermatologist, podiatrist & to a lesser extent a foot health practitioner .

Athlete's foot can usually be diagnosed by visual inspection of the skin, but where the diagnosis is in doubt direct microscopy of a potassium hydroxide preparation (known as a KOH test) may help rule out other possible causes, such as eczema or psoriasis. A KOH preparation is performed on skin scrapings from the affected area. The KOH preparation has an excellent positive predictive value, but occasionally false negative results may be obtained, especially if treatment with an anti-fungal medication has already begun.
If the above diagnoses are inconclusive or if a treatment regimen has already been started, a biopsy of the affected skin (i.e. a sample of the living skin tissue) can be taken for histological examination.
A Wood's lamp, although useful in diagnosing fungal infections of the hair (Tinea capitis), is not usually helpful in diagnosing tinea pedis since the common dermatophytes that cause this disease do not fluoresce under ultraviolet light. However, it can be useful for determining if the disease is due to a non-fungal afflictor.

Transmission
From person to person

Athlete's foot is a communicable disease caused by a parasitic fungus in the genus Trichophyton, either Trichophyton rubrum or Trichophyton mentagrophytes.[8] It is typically transmitted in moist environments where people walk barefoot, such as showers, bath houses, and locker rooms. It can also be transmitted by sharing footwear with an infected person, or less commonly, by sharing towels with an infected person.

To other parts of the body

The various parasitic fungi that cause athlete's foot can also cause skin infections on other areas of the body, most often under toenails (onychomycosis) or on the groin (tinea cruris).

Prevention
The practices given in this section do not only help prevent spread of the fungus, they can also help greatly in managing and curing athlete's foot in an individual by reducing or eliminating re-exposure to the fungus in one's home environment.

The fungi that cause athlete's foot can live on shower floors, wet towels, and footwear. Athlete's foot is caused by a fungus and can spread from person to person from shared contact with showers, towels, etc. Hygiene therefore plays an important role in managing an athlete's foot infection. Since fungi thrive in moist environments, it is very important to keep feet and footwear as dry as possible.

Prevention measures in the home
The fungi that cause athlete's foot live on moist surfaces and can be transmitted from an infected person to members of the same household through secondary contact.[12] By controlling the fungus growth in the household, transmission of the infection can be prevented.

Bathroom hygiene

* Spray tub and bathroom floor with disinfectant after each use to help prevent reinfection and infection of other household members.

Frequent laundering

* Wash sheets, towels, socks, underwear, and bedclothes in hot water (at 60 °C / 140 °F) to kill the fungus.
* Change towels and bed sheets at least once per week.

Avoid sharing

* Avoid sharing of towels, shoes and socks between household members.
* Use a separate towel for drying infected skin areas.

Prevention measures in public places

* Wear shower shoes or sandals in locker rooms, public showers, and public baths.
* Wash feet, particularly between the toes, with soap and dry thoroughly after bathing or showering.
* If you have experienced an infection previously, you may want to treat your feet and shoes with over-the-counter drugs.

Personal prevention measures

* Dry feet well after showering, paying particular attention to the web space between the toes.
* Try to limit the amount that your feet sweat by wearing open-toed shoes or well-ventilated shoes, such as lightweight mesh running shoes. Some shoes (such as the Geox brand) are specifically marketed as breathable and may help keep feet dry.
* Wear lightweight cotton socks to help reduce sweat. These must be washed in hot water and/or bleached to avoid reinfection. New light weight, moisture wicking polyester socks, especially those with anti-microbial properties, may be a better choice. Bamboo socks are claimed to be much more absorbent than cotton and so may help keep feet dry.
* Use foot powder to help reduce moisture and friction. Some foot powders also include an anti-fungal ingredient.
* Keep feet dry using an antiperspirant (not just a deodorant). If hyperhydrosis (excess sweating) is an issue use an antiperspirant with a higher concentration of active ingredients (e.g. 20% aluminium chloride hexahydrate).
* Keep shoes dry by wearing a different pair each day.
* Sanitize the inside of your shoes with a germicidal shoe tree.
* Change socks and shoes after exercise.
* Replace sole inserts in shoes/sneakers on a frequent basis.
* Replace old sneakers and exercise shoes.
* After any physical activity shower with a soap that has both an antibacterial and anti-fungal agent in it.

Treatments
There are many conventional medications (over-the-counter and prescription) as well as alternative treatments for fungal skin infections, including athlete's foot. Important with any treatment plan is the practice of good hygiene. Several placebo controlled studies report that good foot hygiene alone can cure athlete's foot even without medication in 30-40% of the cases. However, placebo-controlled trials of allylamines and azoles for athlete’s foot consistently produce much higher percentages of cure than placebo.
Since athlete's foot thrives in moist environments it is important for individuals with hyperhidrosis to reduce excess sweating.

Conventional treatments
Conventional treatment typically involves daily or twice daily application of a topical medication in conjunction with hygiene measures outlined in the above section on prevention. Keeping feet dry and practicing good hygiene is crucial to preventing reinfection. Severe or prolonged fungal skin infections may require treatment with oral anti-fungal medication. Zinc oxide based diaper rash ointment may be used; talcum powder can be used to absorb moisture to kill off the infection.

Topical medications
The fungal infection is often treated with topical antifungal agents, which can take the form of a spray, powder, cream, or gel. The most common ingredients in over-the-counter products are miconazole nitrate (2% typical concentration in the United States) and tolnaftate (1% typ. in the U.S.). Terbinafine is another common over-the-counter drug. There exists a large number of prescription antifungal drugs, from several different drug families. These include ketaconazole, itraconazole, naftifine, nystatin,

Some topical applications such as carbol fuchsin (also known in the U.S. as Castellani's paint), often used for intertrigo, work well but in small selected areas. This red dye, used in this treatment like many other vital stains, is both Fungicide. But still the number one thing to curing athletes foot is to have good hygiene.

The time line for cure may be long, often 45 days or longer. The recommended course of treatment is to continue to use the topical treatment for four weeks after the symptoms have subsided to ensure that the fungus has been completely eliminated. However, because the itching associated with the infection subsides quickly, patients may not complete the courses of therapy prescribed.

Anti-itch creams are not recommended as they will alleviate the symptoms but will exacerbate the fungus; this is due to the fact that anti-itch creams typically enhance the moisture content of the skin and encourage fungal growth. For the same reason, some drug manufacturers are using a gel instead of a cream for application of topical drugs (for example, naftin and Lamisil). Novartis, maker of Lamisil, claims that a gel penetrates the skin more quickly than cream.

If the fungal invader is not a dermatophyte but a yeast, other medications such as fluconazole may be used. Typically fluconazole is used for candidal vaginal infections moniliasis but has been shown to be of benefit for those with cutaneous yeast infections as well. The most common of these infections occur in the web spaces (intertriginous) of the toes and at the base of the fingernail or toenail. The hall mark of these infections is a cherry red color surrounding the lesion and a yellow thick pus.

Oral medications
Oral treatment with griseofulvin was begun early in the 1950s. Because of the tendency to cause liver problems and to provoke aplastic anemia the drugs were used cautiously and sparingly. Over time it was found that those problems were due to the size of the crystal in the manufacturing process and microsize and now ultramicrosize crystals are available with few of the original side effects.[citation needed]
For severe cases, the current preferred oral agent in the UK is the more effective terbinafine. Other prescription oral antifungals include itraconazole and fluconazole.

Alternative treatments

Topical oils
Symptomatic relief from itching may be achieved after topical application of tea tree oil, probably due to its involvement in the histamine response; however, the efficacy of tea tree oil in the treatment of athlete's foot (achieving mycological cure) is varied.

Onion extract
A study of the effect of 3% (v/v) aqueous onion extract was shown to be very effective in laboratory conditions against Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. rubrum.

Garlic extract
Ajoene, a compound found in garlic, is sometimes used to treat athlete's foot.

Boric acid
Boric acid application in the socks is used to prevent athlete's foot when recurrent infections occurs, but is not used to treat it.

Epsom salts
Some podiatrists recommend soaking the feet in a solution of Epsom salts in warm water.

Nah,,mumpung slama ini artikel saya pake bahasa Indonesia, kan yg mengunjungi blokg saya dan butuh pengetahuan bukan cuma oramg indonesia, jadi mulai sekarang artikel saya ada yg menggunakan bhasa inggris dan ada yg menggunakan bahasa Indonesia, klo artikelnya sedikit, saya pake dua2nya...sekalian melatih bahasa Para Pembaca dan saya trima kasih ^^, thanks you ^^, arigatou gozaimazu,, ^^